Counterculture Analysis: Triads

Counterculture Analysis: Triads Caprian Kan What are countercultures? Countercultures are groups that reject the major values, norms, and practices of the larger society and replaces them with a new set of cultural patterns (Thomas). A counterculture found primarily in china, but also globally are the Triads. Initially, the purpose of the triad group started off as a patriotic movement, but later turned into a counterculture. Somewhere along their fight for patriotism the lines of justice blurred and the Triad groups turned to crime (Blundy). Origins of the Triad societies date back to the 17th century. Martial artists (Hung Muns) desired to restore the Ming dynasty so, they sought their solution by attempting to overthrow the Qing dynasty (Blundy). However, their coup ended in vain. According to the Wing Chun Kung-Fu Association this movement started because the Mings political and economic power began to wane through continuous border warfare. The Qing, former allies of the Ming, had grown so much political power that they controlled most of the provincial territories held by the former Ming Emperor. Remaining survivors of the Ming dynasty either fled or relocated in different provinces, especially for 5 youths: 4 boys and 1 girl that would train at Fukien Si Lum Temple. The five youths would later be known as the Five Elders of Sil Lum. The Five Elders secretly trained loyalists in the art of Kung-Fu, leading to the onset of secret notorious societies, which we now know as the Triads. During this time the Qing had an i ncreasing awareness of partisan attacks; soon thereafter, in their impatience, the Qing armies burned and destroyed monasteries and temples including the Sil Lum Temple. The Five Elders traveled in disguise after the destruction of the Sil Lum Temple for a year and a half however, discord grew among the elders and they soon fought each other. As frustration grew Jee Shin challenged Bak Mei to a martial arts duel, but in the end Jee Shin died. Shock rippled amongst the other elders, in fury, Mew Hin also fought with Bak Mei, but met the same fate as Jee Shin. Fung Doe Duk was next to challenge Bak Mei. Despite being closely matched Doe Duk delivered a compound fracture to Bak Meis foot which would later kill him. After the fighting, Fung Doe Duk and Ng Mui, the last remaining elders, parted on different paths to teach their own forms of martial arts; Ng Mui who would teach the Dragon-Tiger system (Wing Chun Kung-Fu Association). Practice of the crouched Dragon-Tiger system also led t o representation of one of the Triad symbols: the red dragon. Ethnocentrism is characterized by the belief or attitude that ones own group is superior (Mish). Ethnocentricity applies to the Triads because society (the norm) sees this group as a counterculture due to the type of relationship between the members and the type of rituals, rules, etc to make and maintain that relationship between one another. According to Rachel Blundy in the Law and Crime section of the South China Morning Post as groups started to form, members were expected to view each other as blood brothers. Significance of calling each other blood brothers led to the thought process that the bond between strangers was just like that of family if not superior because loyalty was both being given and received. This was augmented by the structure of hierarchy in the Triads; which, also led to the enforcement of rules, expectations, and conducts for each member to follow (Blundy). In the Illuminating Lantern, Nepstad wrote thata famous rule for new members was an initiation oath known as 36 oaths. During initiation each member would recite the 36 oaths, pledging their respect and loyalty only to each other and the Triad group. If, in any way, any of the oaths are broken then that member shall face punishment by 5 thunderbolts or a myriad of swords (Nepstad). Sacrifices are also apart of initiation ceremonies, a chicken is typically slaughtered and its blood is drained into a cup for drinking (Nepstad). If other cultures or people were to look upon this ceremony they would be disgusted, but this is how the Triads display and elicit ethnocentrism; through the strict rules of conduct, which is specifically stated in the oaths and their overwhelming rituals. Although this is not of the norm in in the culture of the larger society it is a practice that helps define the Triads as a counterculture and augments this practice as something that is common only to their culture and behavior. Cultural relativism is the belief that a culture should be judged by their own standards and not by the standards of other cultures (Thomas). In this case, although the Triads are a subculture they are better known as a counterculture because they reject the practices of the larger society and replaces them with a new set of cultural patterns by participating in criminal behavior. Due to an increase of Triad members there has also been a rise in criminal activities; Hong Kong has dedicated a police division specifically for Triads known as the Organized Crime and Triad Bureau in order to take care of this problem (Blundy). Three main Triad groups that have the largest amount of followers or influence, especially in Hong Kong, are Sun Yee On, 14K, and Wo Shing Wo (Blundy). In an estimated membership of 20,000 Triad members about 2000 would actually be active in criminal behavior (Nepstad). According to Blundy from South China Morning Post such behavior includes drug trafficking, which is a major source of income for the groups. Most of the drug being trafficked are opium, heroin, and cocaine. Other criminal activities that the Triad groups engage in are fraud, extortion, gambling, money, laundering, and prostitution (Blundy). In recent years Triad members have turned to credit card fraud, minibus concessions, call-girl rings, and computer software and CD pirating (Hays). Personally, I do believe that the Triads are a counterculture because cultures in todays society, although they vary, do not participate, in any way, in criminalist behavior like the Triads do. A general or main goal for the culture of the larger society is to have a career job, which helps provides a steady income. However, in the view point of cultural relativism the Triads are a counterculture that displays ethnocentrism because they have no jobs and they spend their free time participating in criminal activities to gain dirty money based on chances and risks while risking their First Amendment rights and liberty. Also, the fact that Triads are willing to risk their rights shows ethnocentrism because they have the belief that they are above the law. Whereas, lawful citizens would not be able to perform such actions because they value their rights and freedom. The Triad groups have been a counterculture since the start of the Qing dynasty to our present date; their actions that def ines them as a counterculture do not seem to be getting better if not worse and will continue their reckless, criminal behavior. References Blundy, Rachel. A Brief History of Hong Kongs Triad Gangs. 4 February 2017. Website. 5 March 2017. Hays, Jeffrey. Facts and Details: Triads and Organized Crime in China. April 2012. Website. 9 March 2017. Mish, Frederick C. Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary: Tenth Edition. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 2000. Book. Nepstad, Peter. Triads. 15 March 2015. Website. 5 March 2017. Thomas, W. LaVerne. Sociology: The Study of Human Relationships. Austin: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2003. Book. Wing Chun Kung-Fu Association. History and Lineage: The Five Elders. 2004. Website. 6 March 2017. GOOD SAMARITAN ACT: MUNTINLUPA GOOD SAMARITAN ACT: MUNTINLUPA Chapter 1 Introduction People have different perception when it comes to generosity, some are selfish some are not and others are hesitant. For us nurses, we are obliged to help people in terms of their medical needs but how are we going to do that when we are not in the actual scene? When it comes to an accident, life and death is just a string apart and every second is very crucial to the victim. Here in the Philippines, any person who is around the crime scene is not allowed to help or to touch the victim if he is not a trained medical professional. The by-standers can only activate the emergency system for help and wait for the authorities response that is why survival rate drops. In other country, they are able to help victims of an accident without being afraid to be sued for any unintentional injury or wrongful actions that they commit in helping a victim. This is because they are protected by the Good Samaritan Law, it is a law that prevents a rescuer who has voluntarily helped a victim in distress from being successfully sued for wrongdoing. Its purpose is to keep people from being reluctant to help a stranger in need for fear of legal repercussions if they were to make some mistake in treatment (Devereaux, 2007). Statement of the problem The researchers will study the a number of medical professionals or those who have completed Red Cross training whom Good Samaritan Law may only apply. Specially, it seek to answer to the following questions: What is the profile of the health care professional in terms of: 1.1 Age 1.2 Sex 1.3Length of service 1.4 Civil status 1.5 Religion 1.6 Area of affiliation How do health care professionals perceived? 2.1 Perceived Severity 2.2 Perceived Barrier 2.3 Perceived Benefits 2.4 Cues to Action 2.5 Other Variables 2.6 Self Efficacy Does the profile of the respondents related to the perception of the good Samaritan Act? Hypotheses The researchers formulated the following hypotheses: H1: There significant relationship between perception and application of Good Samaritan Act. H2: The profile of the respondents differ from the application of Good Samaritan Act Significance of the Study The purpose of this study is to determine the significant relationship about the perception and the application of Good Samaritan Act of the Healthcare professionals practicing in the Philippines. This study may provide ideas and could view Healthcare professional belief about Good Samaritan Act whether this could provide improvement in medical and emergency cases. In Nursing Practice this may provide as help to develop their nursing skills and knowledge in providing first aids and basic life support. This study could benefit clients by giving information and knowledge which can be obtained through out the research process and by the end of the research. The clients could acquire knowledge and awareness about the Good Samaritan Act, their rights and the dos and donts of the Healthcare professionals. In Nursing Education this may impart knowledge to the people in nursing field about their duties and obligation in providing care to an emergency situation. This study could benefit students in giving information and knowledge about the Healthcare professionals belief on Good Samaritan Act and as well as the Act itself. It is also beneficial for students to give importance to any person that they will render help to know there is obligation that to be careful. The students could also have a chance to relate this research to their education. This study could benefit the Nursing practice through proper acknowledgment how to respond in emergency cases and its implication. Future Nursing Researchers may also be benefited by this study as it may be a reference material for further studies. Scope, Limitations, and Delimitations This study was intended to discuss Good Samaritan Act in medical fields. The researchers will focus their investigation on the survey of the health care professionals belief and application with regards to Good Samaritan Act in Muntinlupa City. This study was confined to Healthcare Professionals particularly Registered Nurses, Physicians, Midwives and Red Cross Volunteers regardless of age, sex and race. The researchers focused on the applications and beliefs of the healthcare professionals in practicing Good Samaritan Act with regards to their exposures to different hospitals and community particularly in Muntinlupa City. Individuals may feel the need to present themselves in a more socially acceptable light, and may report to be more informed than they really are. Thus, the findings of this study rely solely on the respondents responses. This study is not applicable to those who are Undergraduate, Medical Technologists, Pharmacists, Dentists, Psychologists and other non healthcare professionals. Conceptual Framework Figure 1. The Paradigm shows the flow of the Profile of Health Care Professional and the Perception of Good Samaritan Act. This relationship is enclosed with a square figures. The relationship is viewed as continuous. Continuous block process was used to show a progression or sequential step in a task, process or a workflow. The first box is about the profile of healthcare professional, the middle box is the process of input and output , and the last box is about the perception of it. Each box can influence and be influenced by other box of the diagram. The continuous process of the box, is the beginning of the analysis of the perception of the Health Care Professional and Good Samaritan Act. Definition of Terms The following terms were define conceptually and operationally in relate to the study. Affiliation- A person, organization, or establishment associated with another as a subordinate, subsidiary, or member. 1 Age- The length of time that one has existed or simply the duration of life. 2 Application of Good Samaritan Act- The act of directing or referring something to a good Samaritan act to discover or illustrate agreement or disagreement, fitness, or correspondence. 3 Consent- To consent means to give approval and to agree by free will. Both parties must be fully conscious and have clearly communicated their consent and in the end signed a legal document. 4 Emergency medical services These are services dedicated to providing out-of-hospital acute medical care and/or transport to definitive care, to patients with illnesses and injuries which the patient, or the medical practitioner, believes constitutes a medical emergency. 5 First Aider- First aiders are the one who gives initial care to an illness or injured person. It generally consists of a series of simple and in some cases, potentially life-saving techniques that an individual can be trained to perform with minimal equipment. 6 Good Samaritan Act- laws or acts protecting those who choose to serve and tend to others who are injured or ill. They are intended to reduce bystanders hesitation to assist, for fear of being sued or prosecuted for unintentional injury or wrongful death. 7 Health Care Professionals- Health care professional means a person who is legally competent to diagnose and/or treat the particular medical condition or conditions which are the basis of the accommodation request. 8 Liability- Means something that is a hindrance or puts an individual or groups at a disadvantage or something that someone is responsible for. 12 Midwives- A person, usually a woman, who is trained to assist women in childbirth. 9 Negligence- It is the quality of being negligent or a failure to act. It means that someone was careless and as a result of that someone was injured. 10 Obligation- The state, fact, or feeling of being indebted to another for a special service or favor received. A social, legal, or moral requirement, such as a duty, contract, or promise that compels one to follow or avoid a particular course of action. 11 Perceived Benefits- Something that promotes or enhances well- being; an advantage that an individual may received. 16 Perceived Barriers- Anything that prevents or obstruct passage, access, or progress. 172 Perceived Severity- The act or an instance of severe behavior, especially punishment. 13 Physicians- A physician is a person who has studied in the medical field. They are educated and taught to take care of patients in a certain field or specialty. A person licensed to practice medicine. 14 Registered Nurses- A registered nurse is a licensed nurse who works in hospitals and doctors offices assisting patients. 15 Self Efficacy- Variety of ways; as the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain goals. 16 Volunteers- It is an individual willing to sacrifice his/her time under international humanitarian organization which aim is to protect the human life and health without any discrimination based on sex, nationality or race. 17 Notes 1. Gulam H, Devereaux J (2007). A brief primer on Good Samaritan Law for health care professionals 2.http://chcr.umich.edu/how_we_do_it/health_theories/healththeories2/chcr_document_view Chapter II CHAPTER 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies which helped the researchers pursue the study. Foreign Literature: The Good Samaritan law is not found on the statute books, but has been a concept that courts have applied as public policy. However, this has recently changed in all the states and territories in Australia with the codification of Good Samaritan law. This paper is a timely reminder for health practitioners of the doctrine of the Good Samaritan, as well as the relative legal uncertainty of rescue at common law. The doctrine of Good Samaritan is a principle that works to prevent a rescuer who has voluntarily assisted a person in distress from being successfully sued for a wrongdoing. Despite no case law directly addressing the liability of a health care professional for failing to render assistance in a Good Samaritan situation, there are medical practitioners being found liable for damages and/or guilty of professional misconduct for failing to respond to requests for assistance. There has been no known case where a Medical practitioner (or health care professional) has been held liab le for providing emergency care in good faith to a stranger. The codification of the doctrine of Good Samaritan law in the various jurisdictions in Australia goes some way towards providing protection from legal action for those persons (including health care professionals) who act in good faith to assist those in danger. There is no doubt that this legislative codification is a social good we must be willing to help others who are injured or in distress, without risk to ourselves, including from a legal perspective. 1 Most Good Samaritan statutes rely on the concepts of ordinary negligence and gross negligence. Ordinary negligence means that the individual providing aid did not act as a reasonable health care provider would under similar circumstances. Contrast that with gross negligence, which generally means not only that the individual did not conform to the accepted standard of care, but also that his or her actions rose to the level of being willful, wanton or even malicious. Although there has never been a successful case against a physician who claimed Good Samaritan protection after providing emergency care outside a hospital, many physicians feel concerned about the legal consequences that might befall them in these situations. The fact is that all 50 US states have some type of law that seeks to encourage medical professionals to act as Good Samaritans by offering certain protections. 2 What can be said about what nurses ought to do in terms of truth telling and caring? The essence of caring, at least in this article, is found in the story of the Good Samaritan. Nurses care when they are present with another with a closeness that evokes compassion. Hence, the caring nurse is focused on the other so that the others welfare is paramount. This other regardingness to which the caring nurse gives precedence means becoming emotionally involved to an extent that the nurse strives to be like the Samaritan. Nurses ought to respond in a caring way that is reasonable rather than exact. Strict adherence to a principle or rule of obligation may mean acting in a way that is indicative of the holy men, as described in the parable of the Good Samaritan. A caring nurse responding virtuously acts by being compassionate, which may mean for a time accepting the prima facie nature of the rules or principles of truth telling. 3 Although there has never been a successful case against a physician who claimed Good Samaritan protection after providing emergency care outside a hospital, many physicians feel concerned about the legal consequences that might befall them in these situations. The fact is that all 50 US states have some type of law that seeks to encourage medical professionals to act as Good Samaritans by offering certain protections. The purpose of this article is to explain the basics of these laws, as well as physicians ethical duties, so that when they encounter opportunities to act as a Good Samaritan, they will have a better understanding of what theyre getting into. The odds of being successfully sued for malpractice as a result of providing Good Samaritan care are stacked well in their favor, so much so that the fear of litigation should not be a factor in their decision about whether to help when the situation presents itself. 4 Random acts of kindness are always impressive. They let people know that there are good people in the world who care about others. Good deeds also give a sense of security; they tell that everyone lives in a world where at least people look out for others. People helping other people is what any civilized society is all about. If you do your share selflessly, the world would be a better place. Helping others is a sign of strength and decency and it is what makes one a better person. 5 Foreign Studies: Global Good Samaritans looks at the reasons why and how some states promote human rights internationally, arguing that humanitarian internationalism is more than episodic altruism-it is a pattern of persistent principled politics. Human rights as a principled foreign policy defies the realist prediction of untrammeled pursuit of national interest, and suggests the utility of constructivist approaches that investigate the role of ideas, identities, and influences on state action. Brysk shows how a diverse set of democratic middle powers, inspired by visionary leaders and strong civil societies, came to see the linkage between their long-term interest and the common good. She concludes that state promotion of global human rights may be an option for many more members of the international community and that the international human rights regime can be strengthened at the interstate level, alongside social movement campaigns and the struggle for the democratization of global governance. 6 The Good Samaritan and the registered nurse both respond in a manner that is fitting. This caring response, as an ethic of the fitting, acknowledges that rules alone do not guarantee the most ethically justifiable outcomes. Rather, within this ethic of the fitting, at times the nurse ought to respond with a sense of compassion that befits the moment rather than adhere to a rule at all costs. The holy men in the parable of the Good Samaritan concern themselves with the external goods of policy and status. In subordinating themselves to the external goods, they care less. However, the Samaritan recognizes what is due to a fellow human being and takes action to alleviate anothers suffering. It is clear that the caring depicted here is founded on the virtue of compassion. Hence, the caring nurse is focused on the other so that the others welfare is paramount. This other regardingness to which the caring nurse gives precedence means becoming emotionally involved to an extent that the nurs e strives to be like the Samaritan. Nurses ought to respond in a caring way that is reasonable rather than exact. Strict adherence to a principle or rule of obligation may mean acting in a way that is indicative of the holy men, as described in the parable of the Good Samaritan. A caring nurse responding virtuously acts by being compassionate, this may mean for a time accepting the prima facie nature of the rules or principles of truth telling. 7 Benjamin S. Abella, MD, MPhil, Clinical Research Director of Penns Center for Resuscitation Science and Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine, says bystanders can play a critical role in saving lives by performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation during the 150,000 cardiac arrests that occur each year outside of hospitals in the United States. Studies show that only 15 to 30 percent of sudden cardiac arrest victims receive bystander CPR before emergency personnel arrive, Abella says. But chances for survival plummet as minutes tick by without any blood circulating through the body. Early bystander CPR, however, doubles to triples survival rates. 8 Notes Hyder Gulam, John Devereux. Australian Health Review. Sydney: Aug 2007. Vol. 31, Iss. 3; pg. 478, 5 pgs Robert J Dachs, Jay M Elias. Family Practice Management. Leawood: Apr 2008. Vol. 15, Iss. 4; pg. 37, 4 pgs Anthony Tuckett, NURSING PRACTICE: COMPASSIONATE DECEPTION AND THE GOOD SAMARITAN Robert J Dachs, Jay M Elias. Family Practice Management. Leawood: Apr 2008. Vol. 15, Iss. 4; pg. 37, 4 pgs Charles S Lauer. Modern Healthcare. Chicago: Sep 13, 2004. Vol. 34, Iss. 37; pg. 30, 1 pgs .Alison Brysk, Global Good Samaritans:Human Rights as Foreign Policy 7.http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=9did=800156321SrchMode=1sid=11Fmt=6VInst=PRODVType=PQDRQT=309VName=PQDTS=1278353293clientId=72710 8.http://www.news-medical.net/news/2008/01/15/34307.aspx Chapter III Survey Questionnaire for Health Care Professionals with Completed Red Cross Training The researchers are conducting a study on Health care Professionals with completed Red Cross Training in Muntinlupa City about their perception on Good Samaritan Act. It will measure the respondents perception about Good Samaritan Act and the extent of their knowledge about this and their application. To enable the researcher to make the necessary conclusions and recommendations for this study, it would be very much appreciated if you answer all the items in this questionnaire. Information given will be treated in strictest confidence. Thank you, Part I: Name :____________________________( optional) Age: [ ] 20-25 [ ] 36-40 [ ] 51-55 [ ] 26-30 [ ] 41-45 [ ] 56-60 [ ] 31-35 [ ] 46-50 [ ] 61 and above Gender: [ ] Female Civil Status: [ ] single [ ] Male [ ] married [ ] widowed Religion: [ ] Roman Catholic [ ] Baptist [ ] Christian [ ] Protestant [ ] Muslim [ ] others: __________ Location of Affiliation: [ ] public [ ] private [ ] hospital [ ] clinic [ ] health center [ ] self employed Part II: ALWAYS SOMETIMES OFTEN TIMES SELDOM NEVER If you see a patient in critical condition, are you willing to help? Do you prefer in helping a victim with a higher survival rate than those who is more critical? Do you expect anything in return for your help? Do you believe that Good Samaritan act will improve persons survival in emergency case? Do bystander is a hindrance in helping in an emergency situation? Do you feel nervous when there is an emergency situation? Is the gender of the victim contributes to be a rescuer when there is an emergency situation? Are you willing to help whenever there is an emergency situation? In rendering care, do you prioritize your safety before doing such actions? Does your mood affect your ability in rendering care to a victim? Does the place of the emergency affect you in rendering help? Are you prepared in an emergency situation? Do you believe that you are well equipped? PART III ALWAYS SOMETIMES OFTEN TIMES SELDOM NEVER Do you prefer to help a family member or friend when there is an emergency situation? Is there a difference in level of care in rendering a help to a relative and to a mere stranger? Do you secure consent before rendering care? Does a consent form will excuse you for being liable to your actions? In case of an emergency, are you willing to help those in need? Are you willing to help a victim without expecting anything in return? Does the place of the emergency affect you in rendering care? Do you secure your safety when rendering help? Do you familiarize yourself in the laws applied in the area of emergency case? Do you apply your actions in rendering help from the statue of constitution? PART IV: ALWAYS SOMETIMES OFTEN TIMES SELDOM NEVER Do you apply your health beliefs in giving care? Does your belief affect your application of rendering care? PART V: ALWAYS SOMETIMES OFTEN TIMES SELDOM NEVER Does the competency of a health care provider deteriorate as aged? After a long period of rest in practising, does the competency of a health care provider deteriorates?

Psychological Interventions for Schizophrenia Essay

This article surveys three types of psychological interventions (i.e. individual psychotherapies, group psychotherapies, and psychosocial skills training) for people with schizophrenia regarding their degree of effectiveness. Assuming patients are receiving adequate therapy, this article poses the following questions: 1. Do any of these interventions reduce relapse or psychopathology in persons with schizophrenia? 2. Do any of these interventions improve social or vocational functioning in persons with schizophrenia? 3. For psychosocial skills training, is there evidence that:  · this intervention results in skill acquisition by persons with schizophrenia?  · the effects persist over time?  · the effects generalize from the training setting into â€Å"real life†? As part of their cases studies, the authors used their own patients. But they used more from cases they have unearthed from Psyclit  and Medline  databases. They discovered that the research literature and case studies on individual and group psychotherapies are outdated (i.e. at least 10 years old) and methodologically flawed. However, those papers on psychosocial skills training are more acceptable. They are very recent and had more â€Å"controlled trials.† Accordingly, individual therapies do not really reduce symptoms, rates of relapse and hospitalization, nor do they help the patient adjust socially (Gomes-Schwartz 1984). Some studies suggest that group psychotherapy may be harmful (Schooler and Keith 1993). Despite the fact that psychosocial skills training appears to be the best of the three types of interventions, studies indicate that this type of therapy at best is limited in terms of the results. The authors admit that the research methodologies of many of their cited researches and studies are limited or ineffective, so future studies must be made. However, some conclusions can be made: First, individual or group psychotherapies are ineffective at best and harmful at worst. Second, psychosocial skills training are effective up to a certain extend but better models must be created to improve outcomes. Analysis Notice that the authors admit that there is a relative lack of merit of for many available literature or studies. This begs the question. Suppose that the research literature and studies available were closer to the ideal, and that the methodologies used by those studies were more sound and credible. Would the conclusions provided by the authors remain the same? The authors desire more reliable and valid studies, so different possible outcomes are likely. If, however, the same conclusions appeared despite better research findings were available, then the conclusions made by the authors would be placed on a more solid footing. Interpretation Therefore, in the same way that the concept of schizophrenia is still ill-defined, there exists no totally effective psychological treatment for schizophrenia (or to be more politically correct, to the symptoms which characterize â€Å"schizophrenia†). Integration According to p. 497 of our textbook: Historically, a number of psychosocial treatments have been tried for schizophrenia, reflecting the belief that the disorder results from problems in adapting to the world because of early experiences (Nagel, 1991). Many therapists have thought that individuals who could achieve insight into the presumed role of their personal histories could be safely led to deal with their current situations. Although clinicians who take a psychodynamic or psychoanalytic approach to therapy continue to use this type of treatment, research suggests that their efforts at best may not be beneficial and at worst may be harmful (Mueser & Berenbaum, 1990; Scott & Dixon, 1995b) The concept of mental illness including schizophrenia is questioned by many psychiatrists from the Anti-psychiatry Movement. The corresponding concept of normality is also an open question. Perhaps, a major overhaul of our conceptions of abnormality may be needed in order to produce more valid and desirable results. Conclusion Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental disorder. Its accompanying symptoms render many afflicted people unproductive. So, effective therapy is needed. Even though the concept of schizophrenia (ill-defined to some extent) has been around for a hundred years, no effective and final form of treatment is available. Therefore, research in schizophrenia is a vast and open field. Researchers, from those who have faith in Psychiatry and those from Anti-Psychiatry, are welcome to conduct research and contribute to existing knowledge in search for that holy grail of finding a perfect cure or treatment for schizophrenia, even though schizophrenia (by current convention) has no cure. It is also the job of students of Abnormal Psychology or Psychiatry to be more aware of current research in schizophrenia. They have to decide as early as possible whether they would want to contribute in future research, since a breakthrough would greatly help many people afflicted with schizophrenia.

Compare and contrast arguments for and against belief in life after death Essay

) Compare and contrast arguments for and against belief in life after death (20 marks). 26/01/03 One initial problem with studying the belief in life after death is that there are a vast number of theories stating what they believe ‘life after death’ actually is. Therefore in order to effectively ascertain arguments for and against this idea, it is necessary to deal with each individual theory separately. Plato’s theory of dualism1 argues that it is the mind that determines our personality and that the body is an outer shelf for the real self. The body is contingent and therefore destined for decay but the mind is associated with the higher realities such as truth, goodness and justice and is immortal. Plato believed that the soul continues after death. Plato said that there was a perfect idea/form for everything in existence. The idea of the thing is prior to the individual instance of it and so it must be more real. Ideas are not physical things so they must belong to a spiritual realm of reality, which is more real than the material realm. According to Plato the telos2 of the body is to be in the physical world and receive sense-impressions whereas the telos of the soul is to travel into the realm of heavenly ideas and understand them. Before our immortal souls became imprisoned in our bodies they were acquainted with these heavenly ideas and so our soul wants to break free of our bodies and spend eternity in contemplation of the true, the beautiful and the good. In this realm the thinking being would survive without the physical body, the body would not survive death, but the soul – the real essence of the person would continue. Plato terms this ‘soul’ as our personality identity. According to Davies, although the arguments may seem ingenious, in actual fact they are severely misguided. Things may have opposites, but it does not follow that if something comes to be, there is something which is its opposite from which it comes. Nor does it follow that if something ceases to be, something comes to be which is opposite to something existing earlier. Davies adds that Plato’s second argument does not work because it mistakenly assumes that if all who have lived come to be dead, it follows that everyone has come to be dead. It is true that someone who has gone to sleep has not awoken but it is not true that nobody is awake.3 Aristotle developed a similar theory of dualism for life after death, he considered the ‘soul’ to be the part of the body that gives it life. It is what turns the physical form into a living organism of its particular type. Therefore a human will have a human soul. Aristotle defines the body and soul as being inseparable. The soul develops the person’s skills, character or temper, but it cannot survive death. When the body dies, the soul ceases to exist, as they are one. This would appear to be materialistic at first but Aristotle believed that the body and soul were different. Human beings have a soul or self that is capable of intellectual life. Only humans can reflect on feelings and sensations and grasp ‘universals’. In this way we come to understand eternal truths and in doing so we move on to achieve a higher level of existence. It seems evident here that Aristotle’s argument is guilty of confusing spiritual fulfilment that occurs on an entirely physical level, involving emotions and cognitions with life after death and so it seems we must reject his argument. Bernard Williams raised concerns that the separation of body and mind raises questions for discussion. Williams argues that memories are not a good guide to identity. Memories and personality can be fabricated and personal identity cannot be proved through mental activity alone. He believed that identity comes from physical characteristics as well. Personal identity depends on the way in which we recognise each other and without our bodies we cannot be fully identified. However, one could counter this by saying that the recognition of each other is irrelevant as it is more the manner within which we recognise ourselves that is important. Furthermore, Williams speaks of recognition on an entirely materialistic level as it is merely the physical person they are identifying. Given that one might say that we make judgements through the form of our physical selves and not our souls to recognise something non-physical by this means does not seem rational. Williams also highlights the causal affects between body and mind. For example the use of alcohol and drugs affects cognitions and changes personality.4 We can argue against this by distinguishing between the mind – a non-physical entity, and the brain – a physical entity by which the mind operates. Modern science has shown links between the mind and the brain. Surgeons are now capable of splitting the brain and effectively creating two minds. It is possible to argue that dualism was only invented as a philosophy as a means of explaining what, at that time science could not understand. Finally there is the argument that if the mind is a non-physical object how can it cause anything to happen in the purely materialist realm of the world. Arguments have been put forward to counter this – some philosophers for example have highlighted parts of the brain by which they believe the mind connects to the physical realm. However, modern science has once again defeated this argument and shown how they serve other purposes. It seems that the argument was little more than unfounded opinion and guesswork. Rene Descartes is also greatly associated with dualistic arguments for life after death. He states that if human beings are not to be identified with their bodies, then the view that they can survive death seems a plausible one. We normally think of death as the end of a persons bodily life. But if people are distinct from their bodies, then the fact that their bodies die does not entail that they die. Another modern advocate of a distinction between persons and their bodies is Richard Swinburne. According to him it is coherent that a person can exist without a body. Swinburne asserts that if X (the body) can be without Y (the mind), then X and Y are distinct. Since I can be without my body, it follows, says Swinburne, that I am not my body. Through Descartes’ and Swinburne’s arguments it becomes entirely possible to attack the premise of a dualistic interpretation of life after death by attacking the premise of dualism itself. On the other hand, although our language seems to involve subscribing to a distinction between body and mind this does not show that they are separate things. Furthermore we often talk about ourselves as being distinct from our minds also, so it seems this argument does not work. There are a number of arguments, however, which work in favour of this approach. For one thing, there is the fact that we often naturally talk about our real selves as though they were distinct from our bodies. Another factor is that we also have privileged access to many of our thoughts. We can think about something without displaying that fact by our bodily behaviour. However what does the fact that we have privileged access to many of our thoughts actually tell us. It certainly does not mean that only I can know what I am thinking as it is entirely possible for someone else to know what you are thinking by an observational analysis of your physical responses and even for them to be thinking the same thing at the same time. Unfortunately this counter-argument does not work either as although it is entirely possible for someone to work out roughly what you are thinking, they will never be 100% accurate, nor will they ever be able to think with the perceptions, cognitions and interpretations which you do. Another argument put forward by Descartes to uphold dualism is his statement: â€Å"I know I exist†. He also states that he can say that he is essentially a thinking thing. Therefore this perception of the physical seems to imply that there is something else apart from the body with regard to being a human.5 However in this case it is possible to argue that appearance may be deceptive, as sometimes our senses can be mistaken regarding the physical world. Why should we be an exception? For example a drunk man may perceive himself to be sober when actually this is not the case. However, we may point out that this analogy is at fault because if a man is drunk then his perception and mind have been distorted by alcohol and has little to do with appearance as the appearance which has been perceived is not a truthful one. Unfortunately this line of argument seems to fail when we ask why should drunkenness be any different to other distortions of perception which may occur naturally without our awareness. In fairness, it is not. Furthermore, Immanuel Kant would argue with Descartes over this issue stating that – the human mind imposes order on our experiences and in reality we do not know with certainty the source of the sensations that the mind organises. An alternative to dualism is materialism or behaviourism, which is the view that so called mental events are really physical events occurring to physical objects. Emotion for instance is just the interacting of chemicals in our physical body. Gilbert Ryle (1949) dismissed dualism as a theory about ‘a ghost in a machine’. That is the ghost of the mind inside the machine of the body. Ryle called the notion that the body and mind are separate entities calling it a category mistake. He uses the analogy of an overseas visitor who is shown around a collegiate university town and sees the college, libraries, and so forth, only at the end of it to ask â€Å"but where is the university†. Failing to appreciate that the university is not something separate from its constituent parts; failing to see the ‘wood for the trees’ as some may say†¦ Ryle advocated something known as philosophical behaviourism – all mental events are really physical events interpreted in a mental way. Thus our mind is not a separate entity but just a term meaning what we do with our physical bodies. Some critics have suggested that this does not explain all mental behaviour. If we are for example wishing for something, this does not mean we are behaving in a particular way. You could counter this by saying that the number of subconscious thoughts we have are numerous, and they often can manifest themselves through behaviour without our knowledge, who is to say that conscious thoughts are any different. In fact it seems highly likely that they are not. Ryle’s behaviourist theory can be assigned to a mode of thought known as materialism. There are two forms of this – hard materialism and soft materialism. Hard materialism refers to a mode of thought that does not accept that an individuals characteristics are anything more than physical ones. Any idea of consciousness is nothing more than brain activity. The mind cannot be separated from the body. When the body dies, then so does the brain. Soft materialists do not accept that all characteristics are physical ones. Consciousness is more than just a brain process. The mind and body are related to and do not act independently of each other, but the body often displays inner emotions. A physical symptom may be caused by something that is troubling the mind. There is nothing that we can do independent of our bodies and therefore our personal identity must involve our bodies. They believe that when the physical body dies, so does the mind. These views seem particularly strong as to oppose them would be to suggest that there are bodiless people capable of being defined as human beings, when surely having a body is part of the definition of being human. Not all materialists accept that death is the end, instead, some believe that there is life after death. As the physical body cannot be separated from the ‘soul’ (mind), there is only one way this could happen and that is if the whole body continues after death. The survival would have to involve the resurrection of the body. This belief is known as re-creation theory and is held by Christians. One flaw with this theory is that if we survive as both body and mind, then what state is the body in – are we old/young, sick/healthy etc. The question ultimately refers to the identification of the ‘self’ and who we really are. If a person was born with a terminal illness it would not seem just for them to be resurrected as a person with such an astounding deficiency, yet would they not so, it would not be truly them. The only plausible way around this would be to resort to a dualist style of argument separating the body from the soul. Unfortunately however this is not cohesive with creation theory. The theory also does not take into account personal development, if we are resurrected as a younger person of ourselves then it ignores part of what it is to be human – the ability to develop and change in order to achieve self-actualisation. The development of the self is not compatible with the arguments stationary grounding. Therefore it would seem necessary that we be resurrected in the form that we were just before we died. Yet if the person had contracted a painful illness or indeed was in a coma then this would seem non-sensical. The reason for this being that if (as in this world) suffering and pain is random and universal then the whole point of an afterlife (to reward and punish) is negated. Furthermore if a person were to be ‘cured’ as it were, then they would have had a very real aspect of their character and development removed from them (as undoubtedly the ailment would have changed them as a person, however small the change) and so it would not be the actual person that was carried on. John Hick would counter-argue and state that it would be entirely plausible that the dead could exist after death as themselves, if an exact replica of them were to appear. This replica could be identified as being the same person who had died, and therefore, according to Hick, would be the same person. If this replica will be complete with all the characteristics and memories of the individual then it would be the same person re-created. It is possible to counter-argue this point and ask the question: Would this replica not merely be an exact copy of ourselves but not really us. The individual atoms of which we are composed would differ to those of our copy. We are contingent beings and given that there must be some gap in time in between us ceasing to be and our replica coming to be, then surely it cannot be the same person. Hindu and Buddhist traditions hold the view that we have lived many lives before and that on death we will be reborn again. The condition of our present lives are believed to be a direct consequence of our previous lives. According to Verdic tradition, there is an ultimate reality – Brahman. Everything else is maya – a temporary and finite illusion. Within maya there is a limitless number of souls who all seek union with Brahman. The theory of karma and rebirth is concerned with the soul’s journey from illusion to reality6. The soul continues from life to life, being reincarnated, until it finds the eternal truth; after this the soul is not reborn any more and is united with Brahman. Thus when an individual dies, their mental aspects live on and the next birth is determined by how good or bad their karma was in the last life. Evidence frequently cited for this is the fact that many people seem able to remember fragments of their previous lives, sometime under hypnotic regression. However, although evidence for recall can sometimes be damning, why would it seem to suggest evidence for reincarnation, it could be interpreted as a number of things. Possibly, you could argue that we are all merely cells in one great organism and that these people have just happened to find interconnections between cells. If we removed the cultural-related feasibility of reincarnation then this argument would appear no less likely. In addition, it is possible that there is a rational explanation for this apparent ‘recall’. Firstly, the individual might simply be recalling information gained in childhood and attributing it to a past life. Secondly there could be a ‘cultural’ gene that passes down information from our ancestors. Or thirdly, that some memories may result from psychological problems and be manifested as memories of earlier lives when in fact they are suppressed events from this life. These three explanations seem relatively weak and unable to explain the multitude of ‘regressions’ which have taken place. David Hume would call into validity the nature of the people who make and verify these claims, stating that either they are religious and seek to prove their beliefs to be true, or are mentally unbalanced and cannot be relied upon to make accurate claims. Furthermore, hypnosis is a very unreliable source of evidence. Numerous psychologists have conducted studies showing that not only are only 33% of the population susceptible to in-depth hypnosis, with 33% being not at all susceptible, but also that false memory syndrome can occur quite regularly under hypnosis, where the patient wrongly ‘remembers’ an event to have occurred even though it actually has not.7 Although this argument does successfully call into doubt the reliability of hypnosis, the majority of other physical explanations seem relatively weak and fail to affectively account for something – which in all fairness we cannot explain. Yet the fact that we cannot remember why we know something should not provide proof that we have had previous lives, moreover that there are things which we know that transcend our sensory experiences. Philosophically, however, there are problems with this style of argument. Human beings seem to require three things to make up their individuality – body, memory and psychological patterns (personal identity). If we apply these to reincarnation, when we are reborn, continuity is lost. If we cannot remember our previous lives then our memory is lost. With only psychological pattern remaining it would be impossible to determine if one person is the rebirth of another since, unless they displayed identical characteristics, all we could say is that reincarnated people are ‘similar’ to those who went before. Therefore given that reincarnation argues not for life after death, just for life per se, it seems irrelevant to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of its arguments. Another argument for life after death arises through ‘spiritualism’ and communications between the spirit world and the living is regarded as evidence of life after death. Many ‘mediums’ have passed on messages from departed spirits that contain accurate information which was previously unknown to the medium. However, investigations of a number of mediums have proved that they are frauds. Others appear to be genuine and are able to demonstrate that something extraordinary is happening when they pass on messages. This could be communication with departed spirits or some form of telepathic access to the minds of the living. Once again however, the question is introduced as to whether we can trust the testimony of another human being without actually witnessing the occurrence for ourselves. Given the frequency of unexplainable occurrences such as these they do seem be a reasonable argument for life after death. There have been a number of ‘sightings’ of dead people, which also constitute as arguments for life after death. Dr Deepak Chopra stated that bodies are comprised of energy. They may appear to be solid, but the truth is that they are in reality just an impulse of energy. When an individual dies, the energy field may retain his/her image and may be perceived as a ‘ghost’. He considered the ghost to be an individual’s consciousness manifesting itself through the remaining energy. However there are a number of explanations for the phenomenon including hoaxes or elaborate tricks, which could convince people they had seen a ghost whereas in actuality they had not. Secondly there is the ‘stone tape’ theory which suggests that just as a magnetic tape is able to record events and play them back, in certain conditions, stones will record events and ‘play them back’ when the same conditions are present. Finally there is the fact that ghosts could be the result of a case of mistaken identity, or the power of suggestion could lead to the mistaken belief that a ghost had been sighted. The ‘stone tape theory’ is quite ludicrous as it takes upon a scientific argument to prove a theory when the main differentiation between science and philosophy is empirical verification. In this case there is no evidence to support the theory. Aside from this theory, the other two seem quite believable in that they are quite feasible and explain the frequency and variety of times such an occurrence has taken place. Furthermore, the fact that a bundle of energy continues to exist, showing something that once did exist does not mean that life after death exists. Indeed if the energy is little more than a reflection of what once was, it fails as an argument intended to prove what know is. In addition can a bundle of energy really be constituted as ‘living’, if not then once again the argument is invalid. The argument of near-death experiences also puts forward an argument for life after death. Dr. Raymond Moody has studied many cases of people who had, to all intents and purposes died (during a surgical operation) and subsequently been resuscitated. Many claimed similar experiences – floating out of their bodies, travelling down a tunnel where they emerged into a world of light. However, these accounts have problems. Firstly, these accounts may be merely the result of people dreaming or experiencing some subconscious phenomena. Given the clarity of these dreams the first account seems unlikely, the second more plausible yet still is devoid of scientific evidence to support. Some have suggested that a lack of oxygen to the brain resulted in this hallucination. The main problem once again is verification in that it is impossible for us to experience the phenomena ourselves and judge its reliability accordingly. In addition, the types of experiences are often largely dependent on culture and society and so whether or not they are genuine or merely a manifestation of what the person may expect to see, or in the case of non-believers, expects not to see. One can counter-argue this however by saying that God may not actually be a fixed being but more of an interpersonal one varying from person to person and so the culture argument may not be relevant. The arguments discussed here are numerous, but generally do not hold a great deal of weight. The philosophical arguments are flawed and in places not logical, and the empirical arguments are generally unverifiable. However, given the sheer number of empirical arguments and the fact that some of them (near death experiences and regression to previous lives for example) are apparently otherwise unexplainable – we must realise that it is highly plausible if not possible that life after death does occur in some form or another. Bibliography: Religious studies, by Sarah K. Tyler and Gordon Reid. Philosophy of religion for A level by Neil Lockyer, Anne Jordan and Edwin Tate. An introduction to the philosophy of religion, by Brian Davies. The puzzle of God by Peter Vardy Religious Education notes from R.S. conference 1 â€Å"Any view that postulates two kinds of thing in some domain is dualist; contrasting views according to which there is only one kind of thing are monistic† – Simon Blackburn Oxford Dictionary of philosophy pg 248 2 Greek word meaning ‘purpose’ 3 The Puzzle of God – Peter Vardy 4 The puzzle of God – Peter Vardy 5 Religious Education notes from R.S. conference 6 Also known as a state of ‘Nirvana’. 7 The puzzle of God – Peter Vardy

Animal and Human Cloning Moral, Ethical, and Regulatory...

Animal and Human Cloning: Moral, Ethical, and Regulatory Issues Dolly, woolly, innocent, and sweet, strongly contrasts with the severity of the issues that she has raised. Ever since the news surfaced that Dr. Ian Wilmut had succeeded in cloning a sheep, people around the world have been participating in a frenzied debate over the morality of cloning animals, and more importantly human beings. The cloning of animals and humans could help the world in unprecedented ways, but could also give rise to unforeseen problems. It raises moral, ethical, and regulatory issues which must be considered during with the formation of cloning legislation. While I believe animal cloning is useful on a restricted level, I feel that human cloning is†¦show more content†¦Such work is now being done to produce pig organs for human use (5). The cloning of animals could also be used to prevent the extinction of certain animal species (6). This, in turn, promotes the maintenance of a diverse environment (6). Furthermore, cloning allows man to exploit the desirable traits of animals (8). For instance, one could clone a cow that produces large amounts of milk and that resists sickness (8). Such a process would maximize the production of milk, decrease the risk of financial loss and food shortage, and ensure that the desirable traits will be passed on to offspring (8). Also, disease resistant mice could be cloned for use in experiments (5). A company named Enzo Biochem Inc. has created a mouse immune to mouse hepatitis, which is very harmful to mice colonies as it spreads rapidly (5). The cloning of this mouse could provide scientists with a more reliable supply of mice for experimentation (5). Lastly, the cloning of animals also provides research benefits. For example, through animal cloning scientists can now study how genes are turned on and off (17). An understanding of this process could lead to a cure or treatment for cancer and offers hope for the restoration of damaged nerve cells (17). Furthermore, scientists might be able to produce new skin for burn victims and cure sickle cell anemia (17). While the cloning of animals offers many benefits, it also presents society with a number of ethical and moralShow MoreRelatedGenetic Engineering: Rights and Responsibilities2276 Words   |  9 Pagesorganisms and humans. As a member of society it’s a critical responsibility that one understands what effects Genetic Engineering in the three subcategories could have on society, the laws that restrict and permit Genetic Engineering in the subcategories around the world, the moral and ethical responsibilities as a human being, the rights of the people that, Genetic Engineering in the subcategories ,could help enhance their way of life and our right to choose. 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